Category: Disease

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Pancreas – Hermit of the Abdomen

Pancreas – Hermit of the Abdomen

Ashley Davidoff MD

O’ Dear pancreas

You have been called the hermit of the abdomen
By whom I do not know
But in your dark and hidden way, you have
spoken without a word
from the gurgling depths of the abdomen
Yes – you have earned this lonely title
and a coin should be tossed
to the person who coined the phrase


 

But it took a long time to understand who this hermit was – and what he was doing in the darkness of the abdomen

From the day of antiquity
You have been looked upon by many
Herophilus, the father of anatomy had the first incisive insights into you
As he was one of very few who had the guts to explore the guts in open fashion

Aristotle at the same time seemed to have known something about you
But then you lay unharmed and unexplored for almost 500 years
Until Rufus mistook you for a piece of meat –
You must have laughed at the “pan kreas” thing
How wrong he was – you evasive little trickster

And then the Talmud – always seeming to be right
Thought you were the finger of the liver –
Little did they know how independant you were

While Vesalius was up to your “hide and seek” game
The magical eyes of da Vinci missed you completely
Even though he saw the serpiginous splenic artery snake right above you

Your ducts seemed to have intrigued the next generation, Wharton, Wirsung, and de Graaf
As you sustained the pain of the quill penetrating your inner gut
(I forget you were already dead but it must of hurt just watching!)

A little later it was that man called Vater and the little Italian Santorini found your minor duct and your nipple
And so by this time we had a good understanding of you in your nakedness
But of course, as said – you were dead

And so young Bernard explored your factories, and got a sense of your canine workings,
But you were able to hold on to your sweet secret for just a little longer
Until the Langerhans found the family jewels in the famous 2% of your population-
The islets – those beautiful eyelits – governess of all things sweet in the body

Eberle Bernard Danilevsky, and Kuhne joined up across the world to expose your antacid and enigmatic enzymatic brew
And once again your wonderful workings for a better world were exposed –
And we knew then, that you were the quiet and effective type –
A hermit who did good
But did not want the limelight

To see you as you lived and breathed in the flesh
was the mission of Wilhelm the X-Ray man
who crusaded the path to visualise 40,000 Angstroms under the skin

 

abdomen, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, kidneys, CT scan, Art in Anatomy, Ashley Davidoff MD

 

And then there was a slew of heroes who learned to slew your sickened parts – including the famous Whipple who was able to Whipple you in an inimitable way

And then a bone guy – for God’s sakes – a bone guy! – called Banting and his student Best
Exposed the insular chemistry of you insulin that had given you the power over the sweet
Never mind – in the end it was for the good of all –
And a new era was borne

And so we try to understand your form as our scans explore you as you live and breathe
And we stare in awe at your odd shape – why oh why did you choose that shape?
What are you supposed to look like? – we have no clue
And we are happy – so happy for you that you are well nourished by a double blood supply
And we wonder why you have no skin – we thought all the organs had a skin
Except for your tail – almost a foreskin

And you are off axis on two planes – what is that all about? – kinda crooked

And your twin origins and the intimacy with the duodenum, of the ventral twin
And the strange fusion of the Wirsung guy excluding the little Italian Santorini
It seems to me that your matrimonial fusion with Wirsung and the bile duct has led to more problems than the merger was worth
It does not seem in the long run, to have been a marriage made in heaven
What was that all about? Is there a grand plan to come?

 

And so we try to understand your diseases
And in some way we understand that the guy glugging down the bottle
Could be punished by your reaction
But why Oh why are you so nasty to those whose misfortune it is to have stones roll down and get no satisfaction.. down the green vile bile route
Have you not learned to live with the green secretion by now
And did you not know that by reacting the way you do, that you are cutting off your nose to spite you head?

While type 2 seems remote from you
We don’t know about this Type 1 business
Why are you made to suffer so much at the hands of your own body on your own body?
We feel sorry for you – to have your own buddies reject you – must be awful
And then to see so many young ones suffer because you don’t work
And we once again see and understand what power you control from that deep dark hermit home of yours

And the cancer thing … so silently it creeps on you causing your collagen to counter
And only making things worse as it strangles nerve, blood vessel, and your spouse duct – the green one, – without regard

And then I think of you in your prime and in your happiness
When you are with you two buddies – the splenic vein and the renal vein
And you all look so much alike, and happy swimming in that deep ocean where you hide
And I wish this was forever

 

 

Copyright 2017 Revised from previous publication in The Common Vein

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Pain – Art and Science

Pain

Pain is an unpleasant  sensation originating from our physical and or emotional environments.

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Faces of Pain

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Extreme Physical Pain

 

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Extreme Emotional Pain

Physical Pain

Pain is a symptom and as such reflects a derangement of either the external or internal environment.

All sensations start by stimulating a receptor of  a nerve that conducts the impulse to the spinal cord where low level control and discrimination occurs, and transfers  the stimulus to the brain, where higher centers process the stimulus and react to it.  The structures in the brain include the thalamus, somatosensory cortex, limbic system, and autonomic systems and they are involved in  perception, localization and integration.  They send out a stimulus with instructions of how to react which is executed by muscle contraction or tissue secretion.

Functionally, pain is protective. The physiology and pathophysiology relate to changing the mechanical stimulus into an electrical impulse, and then through a series of complex synapses the stimulus is transmitted with the intent of  protecting the person from further damage.

The causes of pain are innumerable and exist within the full spectrum of human diseases. Pain may result from pain receptors sensitive to pain, (pricking, cutting, tearing) extreme temperatures, pressure, or aberrant chemical environments. A myriad of processes then occur in response to tissue injury causing either irritation of a somatic nerve or distension and pressure on a visceral sensory nerve. Inflammation is one of the most common of these injurious processes that is classically and universally expressed with  pain – a concept first described by the second century philosopher Celsus.

The result of a pain impulse is usually withdrawal from the insulting stimulus, resting of the injured part, or seeking the help of a medical practitioner if the pain is unbearable and arises from an internal disorder.

Diagnosis of pain disorders should proceed with careful history taking and clinical examination, followed by appropriate laboratory tests, and imaging if necessary.

Pain is a very common symptom and most instances are treated with an analgesic or antiinflammatory agent.   For more serious pains, treatment is directed at the cause of the pain.

Classification

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The table explores the variety of ways of classifying pain.  The left hand column reveals the classification based on functionality, origin, mode of stimulation, pathological causes and relationship of pain to chronicity.  As for functionality it may be adaptive or nonadaptive.  The pain may originate from somatic or visceral nociceptors, may originate from damaged nerves in which case it is called neuropathic, or it may be psychogenic.  The causes are usually via the inflammatory process but may result from any of the disease listed.

Structural Basis of Pain

A pain impulse is initiated by sensory receptors called nociceptors which are located in almost all the tissues. A noxious stimulus say from a hand touching a hot stove is then transmitted by sensory nerves to the spinal cord where a direct spinal reflex causes immediate withdrawal from the source. Additionally the stimulus is modified in the spinal cord by a variety of influences from other sources and is then transmitted via the midbrain and reticular activating system to the cortex. Finally, the stimulus reaches the brain’s somatosensory area where it is perceived and localized with additional extension to other areas of the cortex for the provision of a variety of protective reactions to the stimulus.

We will now expand the detail of the structural pathway described above.

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Pain from the Joints

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Pain from Sinuses 

The Sensory Pain Receptors – Nociceptors

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Nociceptor

A pain impulse is initiated by sensory receptors called nociceptors which are located in almost all the tissues. They are tree like branching structures.

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Types of Receptors Subtending the A delta Fibers and C Fibers

The diagram shows sensory stimuli including sharp pressure, extreme heat and cold as well as chemical, stimulating the free nerve endings of the nociceptors  that are linked to the myelinated A delta fiber , and non myelinated C fiber.  The myelinated fiber will conduct the impulse between 3 and 15 times faster than the non myelinated fiber.

 These specialized receptors vary in structure and number throughout the tissue and viscera of the body. There are external nociceptors that are situated in the skin and cornea with higher concentrations in the coverings of the body including the skin, pleura, pericardium, peritoneum and periosteum. Internal nociceptors are found in muscles, joints, around blood vessels, and within the mucosa of some organs including the urinary bladder, genitourinary tract, and the gastrointestinal tract. There are nociceptors in varying concentrations in almost every organ in the body, but interestingly there are none in the brain substance itself .

First Order of Transmitting Sensory Fibers 

The first order of nerve fibers transport the stimulus from the nociceptor to the dorsal root ganglion

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The sensory receptors of the nociceptors are found in the tissues peripherally and are connected  by a long fiber that transmits the impulse to the ganglion cell that lies in the dorsal ganglion in the neural canal alongside the spinal cord. This diagram shows the three types of receptors and fibers that transmit impulses related directly and indirectly to pain . The upper fiber is called the C fiber and it is non myelinated, consists of the receptors in the top left hand corner that when stimulated transmit the impulse via a long afferent neuron to the cell body lying alongside the spinal column. This fiber is relatively thin, measuring between .4 to 1.2 micrometers, and conducts the impulse at about 2m/s. The second neuron is the A delta fiber and it responds to the pricking or sharp sensation that is first felt and reacted to. It is weakly myelinated and is about 2-6 micro meters thick, and conducts the stimulus with a velocity of between 15-30 meters per second. The last fiber is the A beta fiber and it is responsible for the pressure component which indirectly affects response to pain by affecting the gate mechanism of pain. It is greater than 10 microns thick due to heavier myelination and conducts impulses at 30-100 meters per second

The Dorsal Root Ganglia

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The Dorsal Root Ganglion of the Afferent Neurons

The dorsal root ganglion  is a focal accumulation of the first order nerve cells of the sensory component of the peripheral nerve. (orange)  It is situated  in the neural foramen of the vertebral body.  The central process emanates from the ganglion cell  and ends in the dorsal horn.

2nd  Order of Neurons

The second order sensory fibers are those fibers in the spinal cord.  They first cross to the contralateral side of the spinal cord and then connect to the thalamus via the spinothalamic tract. 

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Second Order Neurons  – Cross Over in the Spinal Cord and 3rd order are Found in the  Spinothalamic Tract 

The spinothalamic tract is the major sensory ascending pathway of 2nd order neurons and serves as the major pathway for pain, temperature, itch and crude touch. Within its construct, the spinothalamic tract has three merging bands of specialized fibers that conduct pain impulses. The anterior spinothalamic tract carries pain signals initiated by touch while the lateral spinothalamic tract carries slow and fast fibers for pain and temperature sensations. The anterolateral spinothalamic pathway, located in the anterolateral white column pathway in the anterior half of the lateral funiculus conducts a variety of somatic pain signals.

3rd  Order of Neurons – Connect the Thalamus with the Sensory Cortex

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The Three Orders of Neurons

Second Order Neurons From the Spinal Cord to the Brain and Perception of the Pain  The Three Orders of Neurons

 The stimulus is first converted into an electrical impulse which is taken by a first order sensory nerve (orange)  to the spinal cord (dorsal root ).  The second order neurons (blue) first transport the stimulus to the contralateral spinothalamic tract  which in turn transports the impulse  to the thalamus,.  The third order neurons (pink)  transport the impulse to the somatosensory cortex.

Role of the Thalamus

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Thalamus – Relay Station to the Cortex in the Pain Pathway
The thalamus (T) is the gateway to the cerebral cortex. It is a paired organ and represents the main part of the diencephalon and subserves both motor and sensory function. It is structurally and functionally situated between the cortex and the midbrain. The thalamus has specific nuclei with diffuse projections to and from multiple regions of cerebral cortex.  The thalamus functions as a translator for the cerebral cortex. It processes sensory and motor information and mediates the autonomic nervous system regulating sleep and arousal. The thalamus also contains reciprocal connections to the cortex that are involved in consciousness. It may also play a role in vestibular function.  The thalamus translates pain signals of the 2nd order neurons and gives rise to the third order neurons that extend to the cortex. Awareness and localization of the pain is then achieved at the level of the cortex. The thalamus however is not merely a relay station for nociception but also plays a role in processing the stimulus.  Axons terminating in the lateral thalamus mediate discriminative aspects of pain (somatosensory cortex) including the originating body part. The fibers ending in the medial thalamus mediate the motivational and affective aspects relating for example to the emotional and memory of pain. These third order neurons travel to the prefrontal cortex, insular and cingulate gyrus which contribute to the emotion and memorization of pain experiences. 

The Homunculus Man and Localization of the Pain 

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HOMUNCULUS MAN and Localization of Sensation in the Somatosensory Cortex of the Parietal Lobe

The homunculus man (literally the “little man”) is the distorted figure drawn to reflect the concept of size of organ paralleling the size of the sensory innervation. The diagram reflects the relative functional sensory space each body part occupies in the somatosensory cortex. Those structures with a high density of sensory receptors are represented by a larger size, while those with a lesser concentration of sensory apparatus are shown as being “smaller” in size. Hence the mouth lips, hands feet and genitalia have a relatively large representation. Nerve fibers from the spinothalamic tract in the spinal cord (blue line) are relayed to the thalamus (orange) which filters and then distributes the sensation to the somatosensory cortex.

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The Somatosensory Cortex in the Parietal Lobe – Home of the Sensory Homunculus

The somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe  is the location of the the main sensory receptive area for all the senses including pain. It receives the stimuli from the thalamus and then integrates the information with other parts of the brain  that will modify the perception of the sensation

The function of the somatosensory cortex is that of a higher processing center for touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception serving to amplify awareness of the sensations enabled by the thalamus. Sensation from the left side of the body are processed in the right somatosensory cortex and similarly those from the right side are processed on the left. The higher function of the somatosensory cortex allows us to localize the pain to a specific site, perceive the character and intensity of the stimulus, and sometimes helps identify the shape of the originating object.

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The Higher Multicentric Levels of Pain Perception and Reaction

The somatosensory cortex relays impulses to other cerebral areas of perception that modulate the reaction to the pain  It forward the pain signals via the white matter to other centers in the cortex to enable integration with visual and auditory input, and with other higher cortical functions such as emotion and memory for example. The full experience is then “seen” by the brain enabling the consequent reaction to be as discriminating  and prudent relative to the nature and experience of the person. The difference between the reaction of an infant, child and an adult to the “shot at the doctors” speaks volumes about this latter function. 

Emotional Pain

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Pain of Poverty

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Pain of Addiction

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Pain of Loneliness

Pain .. Pain go away! – and please leave us alone!

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Anatomy of the Liver, Alcohol, and Addiction

The Liver – Just Another Normal Miracle of the Body

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24/7 Clockwork Purple 

The liver is the largest gland in the body and is central to many metabolic functions. It is known as the body’s “metabolic warehouse.”

The liver serves several important functions. It is integral to the digestive system, producing both internal and external secretions. The external secretion, bile, aids in the digestive process, while internal secretions are responsible for the metabolism of both nitrogenous and carbohydrate materials absorbed from the intestine.

Some of the liver’s functions take milliseconds and others take days and sometimes weeks. It secretes bile in order to  alter toxic substances chemically (e.g. converts ammonia to urea), converts glucose to glycogen, and can produce glucose from breaking down certain proteins. The liver also synthesizes triglycerides and cholesterol, breaks down fatty acids and produces plasma proteins necessary for the clotting of blood such as clotting factors I, III, V, VII, IX and XI. Nearly 30% of the blood pumped by the heart passes through the liver each minute.

One of the unique structural features of the liver is its dual blood supply. It is supplied both by an artery (hepatic artery) and a vein (yes a vein!) – the portal vein. The portal vein  drains the gastrointestinal tract of digested metabolic products and transports the nutrients to the liver for processing.

Four to five thousand  years ago, the sheep’s liver held godly powers in the Babylonian culture. The Babylonians, and many cultures thereafter, believed that since the liver was the largest organ, it certainly must be the organ of most importance.

The Cells

Hepatocytes are the major cellular component of the liver, comprising approximately 70% by volume. Structurally they are characterised by their large size and the absence of a basement membrane.  Functionally they are characterised by their remarkable metabolic and regenerative capability.  Kupffer cells are found within the space of Disse and they act as macrophages of the liver, identifying and removing substances and organisms toxic to the body.

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The Cells

The AiA rendering of cells in the round provide an image that is reminiscent of craters on the moon surface.  The thought process behind the image is the formation of tissues from cells.  The building of the whole from the parts starts with the cell and progresses to the tissue and finally the organ.  In this instance, groups of liver cells are artistically combined to form a tissue and an imaginary spherical organ.

Cellular Organization

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Organization of the Liver Cells in Cords Along the Rivers of Blood Flow

The liver  is a compound tubular serous gland. The cells are arranged in plates or cords alongside rivulets of a capillary network called  sinusoids.  The  spaces of Disse are spaces below the lining of the Kupffer cells. The plates and cords are lined by the sinusoids which are the channels which carry blood to the liver.  Just below the sinusoids, between the wall of the sinusoid and the capsule of the liver there is a space called the space of Disse which carries the lymphatic fluid of the liver.

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Organization of the Liver Cells in Cords in the Liver Lobule

The cells of the liver are organized in cords and plates and are organized like spokes of a wheel  around the central vein.  The periphery of the lobule contains  groups of portal triads consisting of portal vein (dark blue), hepatic artery (red) and bile duct (green).

The structural liver unit is called a lobule.  Cellular plates branch and anastomose alongside and in parallel with the sinusoids.  Each lobule measures 1-2mm and is shaped like a hexagon. A central venule lies at the center of the lobule and is the destination of the sinusoids, which carry both hepatic arteriole as well as portal venous blood.  At the periphery of the lobules are sets of portal triads consisting of portal vein, bile duct and hepatic artery.  The biliary system collects bile from the liver and evolves into an independent network terminating in the common bile duct which empties bile, into the duodenum.  The hepatic artery and portal vein supply the liver with metabolic substrates via the sinusoids, and also collect metabolic  products produced by the liver to transport to the rest of the body.

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Anatomy of the Liver in a Nutshell– 

From its Embryonic Beginnings to Full Member of the Society of the Body 

Pleasure

Alcohol – Drink of the Gods in Moderation and Poison of the Devil in Excess

Anatomy of the  Initial Positive Effects of Alcohol

“Drink because you are happy, but never because you are miserable.”
― G.K. Chesterton, 

genitourinary tract, genitourinary system, uterus, woman, Art in Anatomy, Ashley Davidoff MD

Social Drinking: The Prostate Having a Drink with the Uterus

The uterus and prostate are out on a date and sharing a cocktail   The uterus approximates a rectangular shape as does the prostate, accounting for their fascination with each other and their similarity with the shape of the wine glass.  The uterus is accompanied by the ovaries and the vagina which forms the stem of the wine glass.  The prostate is accompanied by the Seminal vesicles and Cowper’s glands and the urethra which acts as the stem of the wine glass. The male secretion seen in the urethra consists of a mixture of sperm, prostatic secretions, and seminal vesicle secretions.

Social drinking to celebrate an event is a wonderful means to enable people to open up to each other  

As G.K. Chesterton wrote – “Drink because you are happy, but never because you are miserable.”  

William Shakespeare, in Othello, on the other hand wrote – “I would not put a thief in my mouth to steal my brains.”

Most cultures favor the use of alcohol in celebration of events, and the positive effects of alcohol when used judiciously is to promote a pleasurable feeling via the nucleus accumbens, and to reduce stressful feelings (often social interactions) by reducing inhibitions by acting on the amygdala

Anatomy of the Feeling of Pleasure and the Nucleus Accumbens

The nucleus accumbens is one of the most primitive part of the brain.  It is part of the  basal part of the forebrain.  It is a paired structure. Alcohol promotes pleasure by stimulating the nucleus accumbens.

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The Nucleus Accumbens

The coronal section of the brain shows the nucleus accumbens (ringed red) opposite its partner at the base of the brain.  It lies just inferior to the internal capsule and frontal horns, near the hypoyhalamus

Courtesy Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology at Boston University School of Medicine Dr. Jennifer Luebke , and Dr. Douglas Rosene

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Artistic Rendition of the Nucleus Accumbens on a sagittal T1 Weighted MRI

The nucleus accumbens, which is the site enabling the sensation of pleasure is shown as a red dot at the base of brain near the hypothalamus.

Stress

Anatomy of Stress and the Amygdala

The amygdalae are paired structures that are part of the limbic system that play an important part in emotional reactions including the reactions to stress.  Alcohol reduces the uncomfortable emotion of stress and distress.  Stress, in general is healthy, while distress on the other hand is not.  The distinction between the two is not always obvious.  Social situations are often stressful since in general people are “forced”into a position with “new” people they do not know too well.  Using alcohol in such a social situation disinhibits the individuals, reduces the feeling of stress and promotes a sense of social confidence.. The origin of the physiology is in the amygdala.

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Amygdala of the Forebrain in Sagittal Projection

The amygdala (red arrow)is a nucleus that is part of the limbic system.  It is a paired structure.  They are located deep in the temporal lobes and participate in emotional reactions, memory, and decision making.

 

Peer Pressure 

Stressful social situations are particularly prominent in adolescence when peer pressure is pervasive.  The college experience with new adventures of socialization,  combined with freedom from the constraints of paternal disciplines are ripe for the use of substance abuse.

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Peer Pressure

The scene: Party night – adolescent on the right, different innocent, alone and anxious. The in- crowd on the left are homogenous, powerful in number and stature, and encourage the newcomer to join in and be “one of us” – perhaps drink or smoke – and this is how it starts.
Educate, support, and love your children – Promote confidence in themselves so when they are confronted they can just say “no!”

Loneliness

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Loneliness

Alone and bored, some turn to alcohol to provide relief.  It is a short term, and short sighted relief to the problem

Early Addiction

Every form of addiction is bad, no matter whether the narcotic be alcohol or morphine or idealism.

Carl Jung

The signs of early addiction

There are a few early warning signs that are forebears of early addiction as they start to surface.

They include; drinking alone, hiding and lying about the habit, blacking out, neglecting responsibility, deteriorating relationships, drinking in dangerous circumstances (eg before driving) and inability to quit.

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Too Much of a Good Thing- can make your life tipsy turvy and turn you upside down –

shows bottles of alcohol in different positions and personify the state of inebriation.  Alcoholic intoxication is a form of poisoning, and can make your life tipsy turvy and turn you upside down. The art piece expresses the uncontrolled situation of inebriation.  When the liver cannot metabolize the alcohol due to excess in the blood stream drunkenness ensues. At lower blood levels there is a sensation of elation and lack of social reserve.  With higher levels of alcohol in the blood, cerebral and cerebellar dysfunction ensues with ataxia, imbalance and muscle incoordination.  Forebrain impairment includes disability to make appropriate decisions.  Coma and death can ensue when blood levels are extremely high.

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Drunk Man in the Town Square

A drunk man in the town plaza is toying with the idea of another swig.  His indifference to his environment, and lack of judgement suggests he is inebriated.  However his body language with an outstretched arm holding the bottle and the other hand pointed in another direction may suggest, at least idealistically, symbolically and hopefully subconsciously, that he realises he could go one of two ways “Decision time” he says to himself – “on the one hand I could take a swig .. Yet on the other I may take a different and more healthful course” Which way do you think he would go? (Photograph modified to enable anonymity) 

Cirrhosis

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Normal Liver and Cirrhosis

The left sided image shows the CT scan of a normal liver.  The liver is the biggest structure that you can appreciate on the CT scan and is triangular in shape. The scan on the right shows a liver with cirrhosis.  Alcohol pickles and scars the liver making it look like a knobby shrunken prune. The first image reflects healthy and romantic enjoyment of two people enjoying a beer at sunset. The colorful sunset transposes int a black and white background providing the mood of a lonely alcoholic. The alcoholic drinks in loneliness and in excess, until finally the person and the the bottle do not remain upright symbolically reflecting physical and psychosocial failure.

The Failing Liver

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Normal Liver and Cirrhosis and Ascites

The AiA rendering shows a normal liver on the left, and a person with cirrhosis on the right evidenced by a shrunken, knobbly and pickled liver, jaundice of the skin and a distended abdomen caused by the accumulation of litres of fluid (ascites). In the long run, the addiction results in much suffering, a miserable existence, and immediately life threatening hemorrhagic episodes.

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Alcoholism and Ascites

(Photograph modified to enable anonymity) 

Liver Cancer

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Liver Cancer 

Liver cancer, frequently arises as a complication of cirrhosis and most particularly from alcoholic cirrhosis. The  AiA rendering of the liver shows the inner workings of the organ, now inhibited by the large yellow cancer preventing the clockwork function of the liver. The liver starts to fail as a result of the cirrhosis so that the synthesis of biochemical products that  keep the body going are no longer produced to the degree which they are needed.

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Wasting of Body and Life 

The collage shows normal healthy liver cells (top left) with a healthy appearing torso (CT scan  reconstruction bottom left).  The top right image reflect cancerous hepatic cells where the nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio is too large meaning that the the nuclei are too big and the cytoplasm too scanty.  This finding is one of the typical findings in cancer.  An emaciated torso (bottom right) is seen in contrast to the healthy counterpart.

Artistically the stark reality of health and disease is exposed.  This terrible disease stares at us in stark graphic reality.

Philosophically – the cancer cell is like a rebel in the community, who only has selfish interests and contributes nothing to the welfare of the community.  As a result the whole community of the body  eventually fails, and hence the emaciation of the body.

Lessons?  Kick the Habit Early  or Kick the Bucket

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Anatomy of Endometriosis and Adenomyosis

Anatomy of Endometriosis and Adenomyosis

Ashley Davidoff MD

Endometriosis is a disease  caused by misplaced or ectopic endometrial tissues located beyond the uterus most commonly resulting in pain at the time of menstruation. The ectopic endometrial tissue is controlled by the oestrogen and progesterone cycles.  The ectopic tissue  bleeds at the time of menstruation and causes pain.  Since neither the ectopic endometrium nor the blood can be extruded from the body,  recurrent bleeding eventually results in  scar formation which may cause non cyclical chronic pain.

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Chronic Pelvic Pain is Unbearable

Endometriosis and adenomyosis cause horrific pain.  For some the pain  may only occur during the menstrual cycle but for others it can  be constant, day and night, excruciating in nature, invading every aspect of normal daily life .  Pain is a common symptom defined by the International Association for the Study of Pain as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage.” This statement characterizes the evolved nature of pain as a warning system and feedback mechanism that influences how we adapt to our environment. However, pain at its core it is  suffering and its persistence can be insufferable for people and diagnostically problematic to those who care for  the sick, as well being  a burdensome cost to society.  

The cause of endometriosis is not truly known.  Long standing hypotheses include spillage of endometrial tissue into the peritoneal cavity via the fallopian tubes or transvascular spread to remote areas .  More recent hypotheses include spillage of stem cells during embryonic development, metaplasia of coelomic epithelium, abnormal vasculogenesis, and environmental factors

Endometriosis occurs in 5-10% of women. When endometrial tissue is located outside of the uterus, it can cause pelvic and back pain, as well as pain with sexual intercourse (dyspareunia). It is also associated with infertility by  distorting  anatomy, (for example Fallopian tube adhesions) , or physiological changes that result in altered immune and hormonal environments with consequent impairment of ovum implantation .

From a structural standpoint, endometriosis most commonly affects the ovaries and Fallopian tubes but can affect any of the pelvic organs including the peritoneal cavity,  bladder, ureters, bowel, broad ligaments, uterosacral ligaments, cul de sac  and even the nerves. Implants range in size from small microscopic implants, but are are commonly about 1-2cm.

genitourinary tract, genitourinary system, uterus, woman, Art in Anatomy, Ashley Davidoff MD

The Intraperitoneal Aspect of the Pelvic Cavity

The peritoneal cavity or coelomic cavity is a large cell lined  space via which almost all the abdominal organs are connected .  It may be considered the suburban space around which the houses of the town are positioned.  The ova are released from the ovary into the peritoneal space, but they are quickly directed by the fimbriae into the Fallopian tubes.

Endometriomas 

Endometriomas are large hemorrhagic cysts that occur on the ovary and  may be up to to 20cms in size.  They are usually  round in shape, much like a large blood blister after they have bled.  The nodules can be red-blue to yellow-brown in color, (chocolate cysts) and occur just below the serosa of the organ to which they are attached.  As the lesions undergo recurrent hemorrhage, they can become associated with fibrosis as stated.  Rarely they may be associated with malignant transformation.(<1%).

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MRI of an Endometrioma

A T2 weighted image of the pelvis (left) with an overlay of colors on the right shows a 10cms endometrioma (overlaid in red) with internal debris better appreciated in the left image.  The large ‘chocolate cyst” lies above the uterus (pink) and compresses the bladder (yellow)

MRI has a 90% specificity and 90% sensitivity for endometriomas.  On T1 weighted images the endometriomas may be bright and do not lose signal on fat suppressed sequences.  Heterogeneity is due to the presence of degraded products.  Septations may also be present.  Both these features are present in the above image . On T2 weighted sequences “shading”   is caused by repeated episodes of bleeding reflecting  hemorrhagic contents in various stages of degradation.  The wall of the endometrioma may contain hemosiderin which leads to a loss of signal on the T2 weighted sequence.

Unusual Locations

Endometriosis is rarely can be more far reaching and may involve the kidneys, brain, diaphragm, and pleura.  When it involves the diaphragm or pleura, shoulder pain may be associated with the entity.  Pleural disease can cause life threatening catamenial pneumothorax induced by the menstrual cycle .

urinary bladder, bladder, genitourinary tract, genitourinary system, woman, Art in Anatomy, Ashley Davidoff MD, endometriosis, CT scan

Endometriosis on the Bladder

A CT scan through the pelvis (left) shows an endometriotic implant  on the bladder wall.  The image on the right shows the endometriotic implant overlaid in maroon on the right anterior surface of the bladder (yellow overlay).  The implant measures about 1.1cms.  The fornix of the vagina is overlaid in pink.  Most peritoneal implants are too small to be visualized by conventional imaging and require laparoscopic evaluation for diagnosis.

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Endometriosis in the Skin of the Groin

A CT scan through the pelvis (left) shows an endometriotic implant  in the subcutaneous region of the skin in the left inguinal region (image a, circled).  The region is magnified in image b and the endometriotic deposit is labelled “e” with maroon overlay.  An ultrasound of the left groin(c)  shows the implanted endometriosis (black) medial to the artery (red) and vein (blue).  In image d, the region of endometriosis (e) is overlaid in maroon.

Clinically the entity more commonly occurs in nulliparous women and the degree of pain is variable.  As endometrial tissue, it is responsive to the cyclical hormonal fluxes, and thus may  bleed in response to hormonal changes. Pain commonly occurs at the time of the menses.  The volume of ectopic endometrial tissue does not correlate with the severity of the pain, but rather with the depth of infiltration into the tissue, or the degree of distension that might occur.  The pain is usually recurring and commonly but not necessarily occurs during the menses. With induction of fibrosis, pain may be caused by other structural changes that are unrelated to the menses.

Diagnosis is suspected clinically and confirmed by ultrasound. When a woman in the reproductive phase of her life presents with pain, the imaging study of choice is a pelvic ultrasound.  Hemorrhage into evolving follicles is a common cause of pelvic pain and these could be also quite large.  This entity has to be differentiated from an endometrioma that has a characteristic ultrasonographic appearance shown below

ovary, ovaries, genitourinary tract, genitourinary system, woman, Art in Anatomy, Ashley Davidoff MD, endometriosis, endometrioma, chocolate cyst, ultrasound,

Endometrioma on Ultrasound

A transvaginal ultrasound of the adnexa shows an endometrioma with characteristic low level echoes reminiscent of the texture of the testes on ultrasound.  The image on the right is an overlay in a biloculate cyst.  Some through transmission is present. 

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Chocolate Cyst  on US and CT

A 25 year old female presents with painful menses. The ultrasound shows a cystic mass in the pelvis with a large amount of debris in the cystic cavity consistent with a chocolate cyst (a).  Image b is an overlay showing the fine granular appearance of the sediment.  When the patient is in decubitus position (c) , the sediment settles to the dependant portions with a clear supernatant.  Image (d) is a CT scan of the same patient, showing a non specific cyst in the left ovary. In this instance CT has little diagnostic value in the characterization of the abnormality other than localising a large cyst, and excluding other causes for the pain.  Although the appearance on the ultrasound is consistent with endometriosis, a hemorrhagic cysts is possible and the distinction may only be made pathologically.

When a female patient in the reproductive age presents with pelvic pain and ultrasound or  MRI are negative,  laparoscopy is indicated both for diagnosis of small or flat lesions lesions  as well as for therapy.    Microscopic deposits which may cause symptoms will not be identified by imaging techniques and will only be seen laparoscopically.  The reluctance to undergo an “invasive” procedure is understandable, but delaying or worse still missing the diagnosis will cause unnecessary long term suffering.

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Laparoscopy

Laparoscopic image of small blood blisters characteristic of endometriotic lesions of the pelvic wall in the peritoneum 

Courtesy Author Hic et nunc.  Acknowledged work is in public domain

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Blood Blisters in the Cul De Sac and Sacrouterine Ligament

Laparoscopic image of endometriotic lesions in the pouch of Douglas and on the sacrouterine ligament.
Courtesy Author Hic et nunc.  Acknowledged work is in public domain

Treatment options depend on patient preference, including whether fertility is desired, but include both medical and surgical options.  Medical management frequently involves suppression of regular menses/hormones .  Surgical options include removal of implants  or surgical induction of menopause (i.e. oophorectomy and hysterectomy).

Adenomyosis

Adenomyosis is a disease of the myometrium caused by misplaced or ectopic endometrium in the myometrium resulting in myometrial hyperplasia and smooth muscle hypertrophy clinically manifesting as pelvic pain and uterine enlargement.   The entity can be focal or diffuse

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Enlarged and Painful Uterus of Adenomyosis

The exact cause of the displacement is not known but it is presumed that a breach in the endometrial myometrial barrier enables a small amount of endometrium to translocate and remain viable.  There is a high prevalence rate with about 40% of hysterectomy specimens displaying the entity.

The junctional zone of the uterus is the epicenter of the structural abnormality The junctional zone is subendometrial smooth muscle that is more compacted, and contains less water in comparison to the outer myometrium. (McCarthy)  The junctional zone is functionally different from the outer myometrium.

junctional zone, genitourinary tract, genitourinary system, uterus, woman, Art in Anatomy, Ashley Davidoff MD, adenomyosis, MRI

The Normal Junctional Zone on MRI

The normal sagittal view of the uterus is a T2 weighted MRI from a 16 year old female with pelvic pain. The myometrium consists of an outer part (dark red) and an inner more homogeneous part called the junctional zone (light maroon)  Since a T2 weighted image is sensitive to water, we understand from this image that the outer part has greater white signal and therefore contains more  water, and likely more vascularity. The junctional zone (light maroon)  on the contrary has less water and therefore is blacker.  The endometrial canal, cervical canal and vaginal cavity are outlined in yellow and the vaginal wall is overlaid in pink.

 Clinically the patient presents with pelvic pain, dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia and may contribute to infertility.  On exam the uterus is enlarged.

The diagnosis is best made by MRI which shows a thickened junctional zone (>10-12mms) s.  The deposition of acute blood, blood degradation products such as iron, or the presence of fluid filled microglandular deposits in the junctional zone make the MRI findings highly specific for the diagnosis.

Treatment options include pain management with NSAIDS, and hormonal manipulation.  Surgery and hysterectomy is the only current option for cure.

MRI

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Adenomyosis with a Thickened Junctional Zone and Enlarged Uterus 

A  T2 weighted MRI (a) shows fluid in the endometrial cavity, surrounded by a thick dark layer of the junctional zone, and then surrounded with a slightly brighter outer myometrium.  The  color overlay in b, shows a small amount of fluid in the endometrial cavity (yellow) surrounded by a thickened subendometrial  junctional zone (light maroon) measuring up to 13 mms characteristic of adenomyosis. The outer myometrium (dark maroon) is normal

The junctional zone thickening is key to the diagnosis of adenomyosis on MRI.  The  junctional zone normally measures 8mm or less.  Between 8-11mm it is considered  indeterminate, and when it measures 12mm or  greater, it is considered diagnostic for the disease.  The junctional zone may thicken normally in the first few days of the menstrual cycle or during myometrial contractions.  Cystic changes in the junctional zone are also characteristic and relatively common and represent small blood blisters.  Linear striations radiating from endometrium to myometrium are also seen but these are not as easy to discern.  These probably reflect a breech in the endometrium reflecting microscopic tears extending into the myometrium.

 Ultrasound

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The Normal Junctional Zone on Ultrasound

A transvaginal ultrasound of a premenstrual woman in the sagittal plane (left) reveals a normal view of the uterus with characteristic premenstrual appearance. Image on the right  is an overlay showing the components of the endometrium and subendometrial layers.  The stripe is almost homogeneously echogenic and thick but also shows a hypoechoic halo of the junctional zone or inner myometrium. (salmon) The homogeneous stripe is made up from two histological layers (barely distinguished by this ultrasound)– the inner stratum functionalis (deep orange) that will shed once the spiral arteries vasoconstrict, and the outer stratum basalis (deep yellow) that will not shed, and will be the basis for regenerating the endometrium in the next cycle. The next layer as stated above is the compact myometrium – the junctional zone (aka inner myometrium) , and is followed by the thicker outer myometrium (maroon).

The junctional zone is hypoechoic  due to decreased water content, and is formed by smooth muscle cells that are tightly packed.  The extracellular matrix and water content are sparse.  It usually measures less than 8mm.

junctional zone, genitourinary tract, genitourinary system, uterus, woman, Art in Anatomy, Ashley Davidoff MD, adenomyosis, ultrasound

Adenomyosis with Ectopic Deposits in the Junctional Zone

Two echogenic nodules (overlaid in green in image on the right) are present  in the subendometrial layer, (junctional zone) in a woman with menorrhagia. The nodules are in close proximity and  have appositional relationships with the endometrial stripe (yellow overlay). They distort the endometrial lining. These findings likely  account for the menorrhagia.  Included in the differential diagnosis are dystrophic changes in prior foci of adenomyosis and submucosal fibroids.  An MRI would assist to characterize  the lesions in the subendometrial layer.

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Emphysema – What Does It Feel Like?

Emphysema

What does it feel like?

Ashley Davidoff MD Copyright 2015

Emphysema?

Take a breath and hold it-

While holding that breath … Take another breath on top of that – and hold it –

While holding that breath .. Take a third breath on top of that – and hold that – and then do it a fourth and  a fifth time

and maybe a 6th if you can

That is what emphysema feels like!!!

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Big Lungs of  Stale Air in Emphysema

No more room in the chest to take in any fresh air

It is beyond discomfort – With no relief …

You cannot take a magic medicine

And  wake up the next morning

.. and finally take in a full deep breath of fresh air

Like you used to do

You have lost that blessing of life

Medicine and oxygen may help

But

The ability to feel a full breath of pure fresh air….

That feeling is gone forever…

Why did I not listen?

A lesson taught by Dr Bartolome Celli MD 

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Art of Anatomy of the Pancreas

Art of Anatomy of the Pancreas

Introduction

Ashley Davidoff MD Copyright 2015

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Pancreas in the Sky

is a photograph that shows a cloud formation embodying the shape of a pancreas

The anatomy of the pancreas is unusual and the physiology is multifaceted.  It is  a gland and is part of both the digestive and hormonal systems of the body.  Structurally it is characterised by its unusual shape and position and the absence of a capsule.  Functionally it is involved in the digestion of food as well as in the metabolism of glucose.  The most common diseases include pancreatitis, pancreatic carcinoma and diabetes. Serum tests, ultrasound, CT scan, MRI and endoscopy are most commonly used in diagnosis of pancreatic disease.  Treatment options include medical treatment (eg insulin in type 1 diabetes) minimally invasive procedures, and surgery.

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“Pancreas in Pink” 

is artwork derived from a CT scan and shows the upper abdominal cavity with the pancreas in bright pink surrounded by the liver, gallbladder, and kidneys. The aorta and inferior vena cava are the major transport vessels and serve to connect the organs.

Structure

Unusual Shape

“…and we stare in awe at your odd shape – why oh why did you choose that shape?
What are you supposed to look like? – we have no clue”  

from  “Hermit of the Abdomen” 

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Shapes of the Pancreas

The pancreas has been compared to many objects including an elongated comma on its side, an elongated number 9 on its side, a prism, a banana, an inverted and curved upside down tobacco pipe, and even an old fashioned revolver. Placing a seahorse or a woodpecker with head down and tail up probably brings us closest to the complex shape of the pancreas. The objects used for description are so varied and disparate, that one wonders if we truly have a grasp of the shape of this organ. A more practical way to look at the shape of the organ is to define the shape of its component parts.

Structure – Position

Deep in the Abdomen in the Retroperitoneum

The pancreas lies in the anterior pararenal space of the retroperitoneum surrounded by a vertebral body and kidneys posteriorly, the liver and gall bladder to its right, the spleen to its left, and the stomach and left lobe of the liver in front.  This AiA rendering shows the pancreas cycling through the seasons.  In the  spring it is in shades of  pink, the summer in blue, the fall in  red, and in the winter in ice blue and white. 

Function

The pancreas has dual functions in the the metabolism of the body.  It acts as an as both an exocrine gland (secretes into ducts) and an endocrine gland (secretes into the circulation).

As an exocrine gland it secretes enzymes into ducts that lead to the duodenum.  These enzymes aid in the digestion of fat, proteins, and carbohydrates. As an endocrine gland it is a key player in the control of glucose metabolism which it accomplishes by secreting insulin into the circulation.

The acini are the microscopic glands making up 98% of the parenchyma and they function as the exocrine component.

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“Blueberries of the Glands of the Pancreas”

is a rendering of the histological appearance of the pancreatic acinar glands. The artpiece  illustrates the ductules that subtends the acini  which are the exocrine glandular cells. The shape of the acinar cells and ductules are reminiscent of grapes or berries on a stalk.

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“Histology of the Glands of the Pancreas”  

The exocrine hormones of the pancreas that aid in the digestion of fats, proteins and carbohydrates are produced in the acinar cells in the glandular unit called the acinus.  The art piece shows the acinus with acinar cells and the duct that transports the secretions to the pancreatic duct and eventually to the duodenum where they aid in the digestion of proteins fats and carbohydrates.

The islets of Langerhans secrete insulin into the blood stream, very soon after ingestion of a meal in order to control blood sugar and intracellular glucose concentrations. The endocrine cells called the islets of Langerhans represent only 1-2% of the tissue volume of the pancreas, but play a vital role in body function and well being. They are most numerous in the tail of the pancreas.

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Islets of Langerhans

Immunohistochemistry on mouse pancreas for insulin shows the brown stained Islets of Langerhans that secrete insulin among the acinar cells.  They represent only 2% of the population of pancreatic cells. 

(Modified  Image –  Courtesy  Billyboy Wikipedia Public Domain)

Diseases

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Acute Necrotic Pancreatitis

This is a CT of an elderly man who had severe pancreatitis.  Within the retroperitoneum there is necrotic pancreas (asterisk).  It is enlarged and consists mostly of air (arrow), fluid, and high density hemorrhagic components.  The findings are consistent with a gangrenous pancreatic abscess.  The surgeon noted that the pancreas looked and smelled like a “dead fish…. that had been dead for quite a long time.”  Other structures including the gallbladder(gb), liver, kidneys, spleen and stomach surround the pancreas

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Pancreatic Cancer with Spread to the Liver

The CT scan shows a primary pancreatic cancer (red asterisk) with metastases to the liver.  Four of many metastases are identified with white asterisks

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Normal Pancreatic Cells and Pancreatic Cancer Cells

In the upper image the cellular makeup of the acinar cells of the pancreas manifest with a normal nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio reflecting the relative size of the nucleus to the cytoplasm.   The 2nd image show cancerous cells of the exocrine pancreas.  The blue nuclii are far too large for the amount of the cytoplasm of the cell (abnormal nuclear to cytoplasm ratio).  The malignant cells are also too dark (hyperchromatic) and lack uniformity and organization.  These are all features of malignant cells .  Cancerous cells do not obey the rules of the body and  have no regard for the body at large. Malignant cells are equivalent to rebels in the community. They destroy and do not contribute to the wellbeing of the society.  They also invade the territory of neighboring structures.

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Ravages of Diabetes 

The foot of a person with diabetes following amputation of the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th digits as a result of poor circulation of the tissues.  The magnified view shows the calcification and hardening of the arteries. 

Diagnosis

“Doppler Ultrasound of the Pancreas-Hermit of the Abdomen”

shows the pancreas in black in front of the splenic vein

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“ERCP – Ductal Skeleton of the Pancreas”

is from an ERCP with an injection into normal the dorsal pancreatic duct of Wirsung with contrast also noted in the distal common bile duct

“Arteries of the Pancreas”

is from an angiogram of the celiac axis and shows the multiple arteries that supply the pancreas.  The head of the pancreas is supplied by the  superior pancreatico-duodenal vessels which arises from the gastroduodenal artery,  and inferior pancreatico-duodenal artery which arises from the SMA.  The body is supplied by the splenic artery and the superior mesenteric artery.

Treatment

Treatment options include medical treatment (eg insulin in type 1 diabetes) minimally invasive procedures for drainage and relief of obstruction, and surgery.

Jawahar Swaminathan and MSD staff at the European Bioinformatics Institute b

3D Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Structure  of Insulin Dimer

(Modified from public domain image from Wikipedia and Courtesy Jawahar Swaminathan Jawahar Swaminathan and MSD staff at the European Bioinformatics Institute) 

“And then a bone guy – for God’s sakes – a bone guy! – called Banting and his student Best
exposed the insular chemistry of your insulin that had given you the power over the sweet
Never mind – in the end it was for the good of all –
And a new era was born 

from “Hermit of the Abdomen” Davidoff

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Pancreas and Buddies

This aquatic scene shows the relationship of the pancreas to its neighbours particularly the splenic vein and left renal vein which run a parallel course, almost like a bunch of buddies romping in the water.  The arching bodies with heads all in the same direction is quite beautiful

And then I think of you in your prime and in your happiness
When you are with your two buddies – the splenic vein and the renal vein
And you all look so much alike, and happy swimming in that deep ocean where you hide
And I wish this was forever”

from “Hermit of the Abdomen” Davidoff

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